Learning Chemistry

Humans desire sweetness in their diet and nature provides it from several sources . The average person in Unitesd States consumes 32 kg of suugar per year. The world average is one-third of this but is increasing. Sugar is not prized for its taste alone, for its supplies about 13 percent of the energy required for existance. As a result sugar production and refining is huge industtry. Manufacture of Sugar The major processing methods used for refining cane sugaar today have been worked out for many years and are unlikely to change drastically soon. Alterations to conserve energy and perhaps reduce the use of some reagents are to be expected, but major process changes seem unlikely. Cane:  Sugar cane is a member of the grass family. It has a bamboo like stalk, grows to height from 3 to 5 m, and contains 11 to 15 % sucrose by weight. The cane is usually planted with cuttings from the mature stalks , which sprout and produce a number of new stalks . The approximate period of gro

Theory  In essence, shampoos are simply detergents.They are a different type of cleaning media than ordinary laundry or hand detergents because of their application to different types of hair. Shampoos are used to remove excess oil, dirt and skin debris from the hair known as sebum. A good shampoo will perform this function while leaving the hair manageable. These products should possess rich foaming action and rinse out easily. Various forms of shampoos are available, from clear liquids to opaque pastes. The primary ingredient of a shampoo is the detergent, either from an organic soap or a synthetic. Vegetable oil soaps, alkyl benzene sulfonates, sodium or triethanolamine alkyl sulfates, sulfated monoglycerides, sulfated oils and nonionics are typical. The concentration used varies with the individual detergent and the shampoo type and will vary from about 10% to 50%. Shampoos usually include modifying agents such as opacifiers, clarifying agents, antifreezes, conditioning and f

Insects have more species ( over million already described ) than any other for of animal life and are in many ways to most indestructible form. About 1 percent of the species offer hazard to humans ans animals , but this means that the US harbour 600 troublesome species. Humans and pests fight a continuous battle for food and shelter; insects alone claim about 10 percent of crops in the US , and about 14 percent worldwide. Various misery-causing diseases are carried by insects : malaria yellow fever, typhus, and plague to name a few . For us to survive at current population levels , pesticides must be used and new ones constantly developed. When insecticides are applied widely , all about few of the local insects are destroyed, but the remaining ones are those most resistant to the destroying agents. After several generations , this selection makes the surviving insects increasingly resistant to the destroying agent. Eventually complete resistant may occur Safety Regulations Chemis

Mixed Fertilisers                   In ancient times the farmers discovered the excreta of animals and their decomposing bodies are food for plant life . American Indians used fish and wood ashes for fertiliser. The Chinese have maintained the fertility of their soil for 5000 years by the application of this principle . Manures have been applied on large scale to maintain better plant yields . Before 1900, more than 90 percent of all fertiliser nitrogen was in the form of natural organics ; by 1950, the proportion has decreased to 90 percent. Bones have served to supply phosphorus.                  The production of and fibre at high rates required by the present large population depends largely upon fertilisers containing multinutrients . Where fertiliser return as much nutrient material to the soil as has been removed by the harvested crops, fertility can be maintained , but in much of the world insufficient fertiliser use is slowly reducing the ability of the soil to produce th

Preparation of Aspirin from Salicylic acid Aspirin Acetyl Salicylic acid also known as aspirin , is one of the most widely used medication to reduce fever and also used as pain killer . It is an acetyl derivative of Salicylic acid . It is white in colour , crystalline in shape, weakly acidic substance which melts at 135 Celsius . Theory Aspirin is synthesised through the reaction of Salicylic acid with acetic anhydride which turns salicylic acid's hydroxyl group into an acetyl group . A white , milky structure was obtained when Salicylic acid , acetic anhydride and sulphuric acid ( a catalyst ) were mixed .  the mechanism of the reaction is  In the first part of the experiment , Salicylic acid was heated so that it would melt and react with acetic anhydride .  Sulphuric acid is added as a catalyst . it is strong acid so there are many available protons. the synthesis is acid catalysed.  First there is a reversible reaction in which the the oxygen of carbonyl o